QAM optical modulators

ABSTRACT

An exemplary optical modulator includes an interferometer. The interferometer includes an input optical coupler, an output optical coupler, and two or more controllable optical waveguides. Each controllable optical waveguide connects the input optical coupler to the output optical coupler and has an electro-absorption modulator along a segment thereof. Two of the controllable optical waveguides are connected to transmit to an output of the output optical coupler light of substantially different maximum amplitude.

BACKGROUND

1. Field of the Invention

The invention relates generally to optical transmission apparatus andmethods and more particularly, to optical modulators and opticalmodulation methods.

2. Discussion of the Related Art

This section introduces aspects that may help facilitate a betterunderstanding of the inventions. Accordingly, the statements of thissection are to be read in this light and are not to be understood asadmissions about what is prior art or what is not prior art.

There is a strong interest in optical communication systems thattransmit data at high rates. While high transmission rate can beachieved by multiplexing a data stream onto different optical channelsin parallel, this simple technique tends to provide a low spectralefficiency. The spectral efficiency may be increased by relying onlarger symbol constellations to modulate the data stream onto theoptical carrier, e.g., a quadrature phase shift keyed (QPSK)constellation. Some larger symbol constellations can be used by opticalmodulators in which optical phase shifter(s) are constructed to providea range of phase shifts. Nevertheless, some such optical phase shiftersare complicated to implement due to nonlinearities and/or weakelectro-optical responses.

SUMMARY

Various embodiments provide optical modulators and methods of opticalmodulation in accordance with quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)schemes. The QAM schemes have constellations with symbols of more thanone magnitude. Some embodiments provide optical modulators that arecompact integrated optical devices.

One embodiment features an optical modulator that includes aninterferometer. The interferometer includes an input optical coupler, anoutput optical coupler, and two or more controllable optical waveguides.Each controllable optical waveguide connects the input optical couplerto an output of the output optical coupler and has an electro-absorptionmodulator along a segment thereof. Two of the controllable opticalwaveguides are connected to transmit to the output of the output opticalcoupler light of substantially different maximum amplitude.

In some embodiments of the optical modulator, one of the controllableoptical waveguides is connected to transmit a maximum light amplitude tothe output of the output optical coupler that is between 1.5 and 2.5times a maximum light amplitude that another of the controllable opticalwaveguides is connected to transmit thereto or is between 1.8 and 2.2times a maximum light amplitude that another of the controllable opticalwaveguides is connected to transmit thereto. In some such embodiments,the output optical coupler is configured to interfere light from two ofthe controllable optical waveguides at the optical output of the outputoptical coupler with a relative phase whose magnitude is less than 20degrees.

In some other embodiments of the optical modulator, the output opticalcoupler is configured to interfere at the optical output of the outputoptical coupler light from a first of the controllable opticalwaveguides with light from a second of the controllable opticalwaveguides with a relative phase of between 160 degrees and 200 degreesor with a relative phase of between 160 degrees and 200 degrees. In somesuch embodiments, the first of the controllable optical waveguides isconfigured to transmit a maximum light amplitude to the optical outputof the output optical coupler that is between 1.5 and 2.5 times amaximum light amplitude that the second of the optical waveguides isconfigured to transmit to the output of the output optical coupler. Insome other such embodiments, the output optical coupler is configured tointerfere light from a third of the controllable optical waveguides withlight from a fourth of the controllable optical waveguides.

In some embodiments, the optical modulator also includes an electroniccontroller. The electronic controller is configured to cause eachelectro-absorption modulator to be in either an ON state or an OFFstate. Each electro-absorption modulator substantially blocks incidentlight in the OFF state and substantially transmits incident light in theON state.

In various of the above embodiments of optical modulators, theinterferometer may include another optical waveguide without an opticalswitch or controllable optical modulator there along. The other opticalwaveguide also connects the input optical coupler to the output opticalcoupler.

Another embodiment features an method. The method includes, in each of aseries of time intervals, modulating a data bit onto each light beam ofa plurality of mutually coherent light beams via a binary amplitudemodulation scheme. The method also includes optically interfering lightfrom the modulated mutually coherent light beams to produce an outputlight beam. The interfered light from two of the modulated mutuallycoherent light beams has substantially different maximum amplitude.

In some embodiments, the method is such that the maximum amplitude ofthe interfered light of one of the modulated mutually coherent lightbeams is between 1.5 and 2.5 times the maximum amplitude of theinterfered light from another of light beams. In some such embodiments,the interfering includes interfering the modulated mutually coherentlight beams with another mutually coherent light beam having asubstantially temporally constant intensity. In some such embodiments,the interfering includes interfering the light of the two of themutually coherent light beams with a relative phase whose magnitude isless than 20 degrees.

In some other embodiments, the interfering includes interfering thelight of first and second of the mutually coherent light beams with arelative phase of between 160 degrees and 200 degrees. In some suchembodiments, the interfering also includes interfering the light ofthird and fourth of the mutually coherent light beams with a relativephase whose magnitude is less than 20 degrees.

In various of the above embodiments, the method may include transmittinglight of each light beam of the plurality through a corresponding one ofthe controllable optical waveguides in both forward and backwardsdirections.

Another embodiment features another optical modulator. The opticalmodulator includes an interferometer having an optical coupler,controllable optical waveguides, and reflectors. Each reflectorcorresponds to one of the controllable optical waveguides. Eachcontrollable optical waveguide is configured to receive light from anddeliver light to the optical coupler and has an electro-absorptionmodulator along a segment thereof. Each reflector is located to reflectlight back into the corresponding one of the controllable opticalwaveguides in response to receiving light there from. Two of thecontrollable optical waveguides are configured to transmit to theoptical output of the optical coupler light of substantially differentmaximum amplitude.

In some embodiments of the optical modulator, one of the controllableoptical waveguides is connected to transmit a maximum light amplitude tothe optical output of the optical coupler that is between 1.5 and 2.5 orbetween 1.8 and 2.2 times a maximum light amplitude that anther of thecontrollable optical waveguides is connected to transmit thereto.

In some embodiments of the optical modulator, the optical coupler isconfigured to interfere at its optical output light from two of thecontrollable optical waveguides with a relative phase whose magnitude isless than 20 degrees.

In some embodiments of the optical modulator, the optical coupler isconfigured to interfere at its optical output light from a first of thecontrollable optical waveguides with light from a second of thecontrollable optical waveguides with a relative phase of between 160degrees and 200 degrees.

In some embodiments, the optical modulator further includes anelectronic controller configured to cause each electro-absorptionmodulator to be in either an ON state or an OFF state. Eachelectro-absorption modulator substantially blocks incident light in theOFF state and substantially transmits incident light in the ON state.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 illustrates one form of the 8-QAM symbol constellation;

FIGS. 2A and 2B illustrate two forms of 16-QAM symbol constellations;

FIG. 3 illustrates one form of the 32-QAM symbol constellation;

FIG. 4 is a top view of one embodiment of a 8-QAM optical modulator;

FIG. 5 is a top view of another embodiment of a 8-QAM optical modulator;

FIG. 6 is a top view of one embodiment of a 16-QAM optical modulator;

FIG. 7 is a top view of another embodiment of a 16-QAM opticalmodulator;

FIG. 8 is a top view of an embodiment of a 32-QAM optical modulator;

FIG. 9 is a top view of another embodiment of a 32-QAM opticalmodulator;

FIG. 10 is a top view illustrating an alternate optical modulator thatoperates similarly to the QAM optical modulators of FIGS. 4-9 but hasonly a single optical coupler;

FIG. 11 is a flow chart for a method of performing optical modulationaccording to QAM constellations with four of more symbols, e.g., usingthe optical modulators of FIGS. 4-10;

FIG. 12 is a cross-sectional view of an exemplary planar structure forthe optical modulators of FIGS. 4-10; and

FIG. 13 is a flow chart illustrating one method of making the exemplarystructure of FIG. 12.

In the Figures, similar reference numbers refer to features havingsubstantially similar functions and/or structures.

In some of the Figures, relative dimensions of some features may beexaggerated to more clearly illustrate the structures shown therein.

While the Figures and the Detailed Description of IllustrativeEmbodiments describe some embodiments, the inventions may have otherforms and are not limited to those described in the Figures and theDetailed Description of Illustrative Embodiments.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIVE EMBODIMENTS

Various embodiments provide for optical modulators that are based onmulti-arm interferometers. The optical modulators modulate data onto anoptical carrier via quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) schemes forconstellations having 4 or more symbols or signal points. The 8-QAM,first 16-QAM, second 16-QAM, and 32-QAM constellations of FIGS. 1, 2A,2B, and 3, respectively, are examples with eight or more signal points(i.e., black dots). In these QAM constellations, the in-phase andquadrature-phase amplitudes of a QAM symbol are proportional torespective x and y coordinates of the corresponding signal point.Herein, suitable QAM constellations may be centered about (0, 0) orabout another point, C, e.g., as in FIGS. 1, 2A, 2B, and 3. If aconstellation's center, i.e., its center of mass, is at the point (0,0), the time-averaged transmitted power is usually approximatelyminimized during transmission.

The QAM constellations of FIGS. 1, 2A, 2B, and 3 illustrate only some ofthe constellations that can be used by embodiments of optical modulatorsand modulation schemes described herein. Based on this disclosure, aperson of skill in the art would understand how to make and operateoptical modulators operating according to other QAM constellations.

FIGS. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 illustrate structures for first and second8-QAM optical modulators 10A, 10B, first and second 16-QAM opticalmodulators 10C, 10D, and first and second 32-QAM optical modulators 10E,10F. Each of the QAM optical modulators 10A-10F may be fabricated as anintegrated planar optical device.

Each optical modulator 10A-10F includes a controllable interferometer,I, i.e., a generalized Mach-Zehnder interferometer. Each of thecontrollable interferometers, I, has a parallel set of two or morecontrollable optical waveguides 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, an input opticalcoupler 20, and an output optical coupler 22, and optionally has anon-controllable or fixed optical waveguide 17. Each controllableoptical waveguide 11-16 optically connects the input optical coupler 20to the output optical coupler 22. Each controllable optical waveguide11-16 has an electro-absorption modulator (EAM) located along a segmentthereof. The optional non-controllable or fixed optical waveguide 17optically connects the input and output optical couplers 20, 22, butdoes not include an EAM or an optical modulator along a segment thereof.The input and output optical couplers 20, 22 may be, e.g., optical starcouplers, multi-mode interference couplers, or concatenations ofdirectional optical couplers. The input optical coupler distributes partof the light received from an optical input 24 among the opticalwaveguides 11-17. The optical input 24 receives light from a coherentlight source 26, e.g., a laser, via an input optical waveguide. Theoutput optical coupler 22 distributes light received from the opticalwaveguides 11-17 to an optical output 28. The optical output 28 maytransmit a modulated optical carrier, e.g., to an optical amplifierand/or an optical transmission fiber.

The controllable and optional fixed optical waveguides 11-17 receivemutually coherent light beams from the input optical coupler 20 andoutput mutually coherent, light beams to the output optical coupler 22.Each controllable optical waveguide 11-16 has a transmissivity that iscontrolled by its EAM. Each EAM is temporally controlled by controlvoltages received from an electronic controller 29 and is operated sothat the corresponding controllable optical waveguide 11-16 will outputa temporally modulated light beam whose form is responsive to thecontrol voltages. The control voltages are received, e.g., viaconducting metal control lines, which are indicated by dashes in FIGS.4-9.

The controllable and optional fixed optical waveguides 11-17 areconfigured so that each optical modulator 10A-10F produces the signalpoints of a preselected QAM constellation during operation.

First, at least one of the controllable optical waveguides 15 isconfigured to transmit a substantially larger maximum light amplitude tothe optical output 28 of the output optical coupler 20 than one or moreothers of the controllable optical waveguides 11, 14. For example, thecontrollable optical waveguide 15 transmits, in its substantiallytransmitting state, a light amplitude that is near twice, e.g., between1.5 times and 2.5 times, the light amplitude transmitted thereto by eachof the other controllable optical waveguides 11, 14, i.e., in theirtransmitting states. Preferably, the controllable optical waveguide 15transmits to the optical output 28, in its substantially transmittingstate, a light amplitude that is between 1.8 and 2.2 times the lightamplitude transmitted thereto by each of the one or more othercontrollable optical waveguides 11, 14 in their transmitting states. Tothat end, the input and/or output of the controllable optical waveguide15 may have larger area(s) than the inputs and/or outputs of thecontrollable optical waveguides 11, 14. In addition, the input and/oroutput of the controllable optical waveguide 15 may be located nearer tothe center(s), S, of the arc-shaped output surfaces of the opticalcouplers 20, 22 than the inputs and/or outputs of the controllableoptical waveguides 11, 14 in embodiments where the optical couplers 20,22 are optical star couplers with free space optical propagation regionsand such arc-shaped output surfaces. Differences in the values of thecouplings of the individual optical waveguides 11-17 to the input and/oroutput optical couplers 20, 22 and in the propagation losses in theindividual optical waveguides 11-17 combine to produce the relativedifferences in the maximum light amplitudes that the optical waveguides11-17 transmit to the optical output 28 of the output optical coupler22.

Herein, light amplitudes are defined to be positive quantities.

Second, the light from the controllable and optional fixed opticalwaveguides 11-17 interferes at the optical output 28 of the outputoptical coupler 22 with preselected relative phases. The relative phasesare determined, e.g., by the relative optical path lengths of theoptical waveguides 11-17 and the location of the optical output 28. Forexample, the controllable optical waveguides 11-16 may be organized intoa first group, e.g., the controllable optical waveguides 11-13, and asecond group, e.g., the controllable optical waveguides 14-16, so thatlight from the two groups interferes at the optical output 28 of theoutput optical coupler 22 with a first preselected relative phase. Thefirst preselected relative phase may have, e.g., a magnitude of about+90 degrees. For example, the first preselected relative phase is in therange of 90°±20° and preferably is in the range of 90°±10°.

The optical path lengths of the individual controllable and optionalfixed optical waveguides 11-17 may be separately adjusted through thegeometrical layout of the optical waveguides 11-17 or optionally throughfixed optical phase shifters 18 that are located along segments of asubset of the optical waveguides 11-17. In the later case, each phaseshifter 18 is DC biased via a voltage applied to other metal electricalcontrol lines (not shown) so that the corresponding optical waveguide11-17 outputs light to the optical output 28 of the output opticalcoupler 22 with the appropriate phase relative to the light outputthereto by the others of the optical waveguides 11-17.

Herein, phases are modular numbers that are defined up to an integertimes 360 degrees. That is, a phase “P” is the same as a phase P+N·360°where N is any integer that does not have too large a magnitude.

Third, the electronic controller 29 modulates a stream of data bits ontothe mutually coherent optical carrier in each controllable opticalwaveguide 11-16 by applying a corresponding temporal stream of controlvoltages to the EAM located along a segment of that controllable opticalwaveguide 11-16. The electronic controller 29 causes each of the EAMs tobe in either an ON state or an OFF state during operation. For example,each EAM has a ratio of a transmitted light power in the OFF state to atransmitted light power in the ON state of 0.2 or less, and preferably,the ratio is 0.1 or less. Thus, each EAM is operated to substantiallytransmit or substantially block light in the corresponding opticalwaveguide 11-16, i.e., is operated according to a substantially On-Offkeying modulation scheme. The EAMs may however, still transmit a fixedfinite light power in their OFF states.

The optical modulators 10A-10F have internal EAMs rather thancontrollable phase shifters. Herein, an EAM modulates a light intensityin the corresponding controllable optical waveguide by applying anelectric field across a segment of the optical waveguide. An EAMtypically includes electrodes that apply electric field along thecontrolled segment of the corresponding controllable optical waveguide,e.g., a semiconductor segment. Along the controlled segment, the voltageapplied to the EAM controls an optical absorption spectrum of thecorresponding controllable optical waveguide.

As illustrated below, various specific embodiments are available for QAMoptical modulators with some or all of the above-described features.

8-QAM Optical Modulators

Referring to FIGS. 4-5, embodiments of the optical modulators 10A-10Bmodulate data onto an optical carrier according to 8-QAM constellations.

One such embodiment internally sets maximum light amplitudes andrelative phases of interfered light as described below. With respect tolight amplitudes, the controllable optical waveguide 15 is configured totransmit, i.e., in its transmitting state, to the optical output 28 ofthe optical coupler 22 a maximum light amplitude that is about twice themaximum light power transmitted thereto by each other controllableoptical waveguide 11, 14, i.e., in their transmitting states. Forexample, in transmitting states, the ratio of the light amplitude thatthe controllable optical waveguide 15 transmits to optical output 28 ofthe output optical coupler 22 over the light amplitude that each othercontrollable optical waveguide 11, 14 transmits thereto is between 1.5and 2.5 and is preferably between 1.8 and 2.2. With respect to therelative phases, light transmitted by the controllable opticalwaveguides 14, 15 interferes at the optical output 28 of the outputoptical coupler 22 with light transmitted by the controllable opticalwaveguide 11 with a first relative phase of about 90 degrees. Forexample, the first relative phase may be in the range of 90°±20° andpreferably is in the range of 90°±10°. Also, the two controllableoptical waveguides 14, 15 output light that interferes at the opticaloutput 28 of the output optical coupler 22 with a second relative phaseof about 0 degrees. For example, the second relative phase may be in theinterval [−20°, +20°] and preferably is in the interval [−10°, +10°].

In the above embodiments, the optical modulators 10A, 10B of FIGS. 4 and5 produce a signal point of an 8-QAM constellation for each state of thethree EAMs. For the above embodiments of the optical modulator 10A, thex and the y coordinates of the signal points, i.e., in phase andquadrature phase light amplitudes, and the states of the three EAMs arerelated as shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1 8-QAM Optical modulator (0, 0) (0, 1) (0, 2) (0, 3) (1, 0)(1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) EAM of OFF OFF OFF OFF ON ON ON ON waveguide 11 EAMof OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON waveguide 14 EAM of OFF OFF ON ON OFF OFFON ON waveguide 15For the optical modulators 10B, the states of the EAMs produce thesignal points of an 8-QAM constellation with a different center, C. Forspecial configurations of the fixed optical waveguide 17, the center, C,of the 8-QAM constellation will be at or near (0, 0). In some suchspecial configurations, the fixed optical waveguide 17 outputs a lightamplitude that is about (5/2)^(1/2) times the maximum light amplitudeoutput by each lower power controllable optical waveguide 11, 14, i.e.,in their ON states. For example, the fixed optical waveguide 17 may beconfigured to transmit to the optical output 28 of the output opticalcoupler 22, a light amplitude that is in the range of (5/2)^(1/2) ±20%times the maximum light amplitude transmitted thereto by each low powercontrollable optical waveguide 11, 14 and is preferably in the range of(5/2)^(1/2) ±10% times the maximum light amplitude transmitted theretoby each low power controllable optical waveguide 11, 14. In thesespecial configurations, the fixed optical waveguide 17 outputs lightthat interferes, at the optical output 28 of the output optical coupler22, with a relative phase of about arctan(3)+180 degrees with lightoutput thereto by the controllable optical waveguide 11. For example,the relative phase may be in the range of 251.5°±20° and is preferablyin the range of 251.5°±10°. In these special configurations, the opticalmodulator 10B typically generates a lower average optical power duringoperation than the optical modulator 10A, because the center of the8-QAM constellation is nearer to (0, 0) for the optical modulator 10B.

In different embodiments, the relative lateral positions of thewaveguides 11, 14, 15, 17 may be different. For example, the lateraloutside-to-inside ordering of the waveguides 11, 14, 15, 17 in theregion between the optical couplers 20, 22 may differ in differentembodiments. In particular, the fixed optical waveguide 17 may not benear the center of the set of optical waveguides 11, 14, 15, 17.

Linear 4-QAM Optical Modulators

Some embodiments of 4-QAM optical modulators are constructed like theabove embodiments of the modulators 10A-10B of FIGS. 4-5 except that thecontrollable optical waveguide 11 is absent. In these embodiments, thecontrollable optical waveguides 14, 15, and the optional fixed opticalwaveguide 17 transmit relative light amplitudes to the optical output 28of the output optical coupler 22 as described above for the opticalmodulators 10A-10B. In addition, at the optical output 28 of the outputoptical coupler 22, the relative phases of interfered light from thecontrollable optical waveguides 14, 15, and the optional fixed opticalwaveguide 17 have the values described above for the optical modulators10A-10B.

These embodiments of optical modulators produce linear 4-QAMconstellations. In embodiments of such optical modulators that do notinclude the fixed optical waveguide 17, the x and y coordinates ofsignals points, i.e., in phase and quadrature phase light amplitudes,and the states of the two EAMs of the optical modulators are related asshown in Table 2.

TABLE 2 8-QAM Optical modulator (0, 0) (0, 1) (0, 2) (0, 3) EAM ofwaveguide 14 OFF ON OFF ON EAM of waveguide 15 OFF OFF ON ONThus, the four signal points of the linear 4-QAM constellation form aline on the y-axis. In embodiments of such optical modulators thatinclude the fixed optical waveguide 17, the 4-QAM constellation may beshifted to have a center, i.e., a center of mass, near or at the origin(0, 0).

16-QAM Optical Modulators

Referring to FIGS. 6-7, embodiments of the optical modulators 10C-10Dmodulate data onto an optical carrier according to 16-QAMconstellations.

EXAMPLE 1

First exemplary embodiments of the optical modulators 10C-10D setinternal light amplitudes and relative phases between interfered lightas described below. With respect to internal light amplitudes, eachcontrollable optical waveguide 12, 15 of a first group is configured totransmit a maximum light amplitude to the optical output 28 of theoutput optical coupler 22 that is about twice the maximum lightamplitude transmitted thereto by each controllable optical waveguide 11,14 of a second group. For example, in their ON or substantiallytransmitting states, a ratio of the light amplitude transmitted to theoptical output 28 of the output optical coupler 22 by the individualcontrollable optical waveguides 12, 15 of the first group over the lightamplitude transmitted thereto by the individual controllable opticalwaveguides 11, 14 of the second group may be in the interval [1.5, 2.5]and preferably is in the interval [1.8, 2.2]. The differences in maximumlight amplitudes transmitted to the optical output 28 of the outputoptical coupler 22 are due to differences in the couplings of theoptical waveguides 11, 14, 12, 15 of the first and second groups to theinput and/or output optical couplers 20, 22 in combination with anydifferences in propagation losses in the optical waveguides 11, 14, 12,15. With respect to relative phases, light from the controllable opticalwaveguides 14, 15 of a third group interfere at the optical output 28 ofthe output optical coupler 22 with light from the controllable opticalwaveguides 11, 12 of a fourth group with a first relative phase of about90 degrees. For example, the first relative phase may be in the range of90°±20° and preferably is in the range of 90°±10°. Also, light from thecontrollable optical waveguides 14, 15 of the third group interferes atthe optical output 28 of the output optical coupler 22 with a secondrelative phase of about 0 degrees. Finally, light from the controllableoptical waveguides 11, 12 of the fourth group interferes at the opticaloutput 28 of the output optical coupler 22 with a third relative phaseof about 0 degrees. For example, the second and third relative phasesmay be in the interval [−20°, +20°] and preferable are in the interval[−10°, +10°].

In the first exemplary embodiment, the optical modulators 10C, 10D ofFIGS. 6 and 7 produce a signal point of a 16-QAM constellation for eachstate of their four EAMs. For the above embodiments of the opticalmodulator 10C, the x and the y coordinates of the signal points of16-QAM constellation of FIG. 2A and the states of the three EAMs arerelated as shown in Tables 3A and 3B.

TABLE 3A 16-QAM Optical modulator x = 0 x = 1 x = 2 x = 3 EAM ofwaveguide 14 OFF ON OFF ON EAM of waveguide 15 OFF OFF ON ON

TABLE 3B 16-QAM Optical modulator y = 0 y = 1 y = 2 y = 3 EAM ofwaveguide 11 OFF ON OFF ON EAM of waveguide 12 OFF OFF ON ONFor the optical modulator 10D, the states of the EAMs produce signalpoints of a 16-QAM constellation with a different center, C. For specialconfigurations of the fixed optical waveguide 17, the center, C, of the16-QAM constellation will be at or near (0, 0). In some such specialconfigurations, the fixed optical waveguide 17 is configured to transmita light amplitude to the optical output 28 of the output optical coupler22 that is about (9/2)^(1/2) times the maximum light amplitudetransmitted thereto by each of the lower power controllable opticalwaveguides 11, 14, i.e., in their ON or substantially transmittingstates. For example, the fixed optical waveguide 17 may be configured totransmit to the optical output 28 of the output optical coupler 22, alight amplitude that is (9/2)^(1/2)±20% times the light amplitudetransmitted thereto by each low power controllable optical waveguide 11,14 in its ON state, and preferably, the fixed optical waveguide 17transmits thereto a light amplitude that is (9/2)^(1/2)±10% times thelight amplitude transmitted thereto by each low power controllableoptical waveguide 11, 14 in its ON state. In these specialconfigurations, the fixed optical waveguide 17 transmits light thatinterferes, at the optical output 28 of the output optical coupler 22,with a relative phase of about 225 degrees with light transmittedthereto by the controllable optical waveguides 11, 12 of the fourthgroup. For example, the relative phase may be in the range of 225°±20°and is preferably in the range of 225°±10°. In these specialconfigurations, the optical modulator 10D typically generates a loweraverage optical power during operation than the optical modulator 10C.

EXAMPLE 2

Second exemplary embodiments of the optical modulators 10C-10D setinternal light amplitudes and relative phases between interfered lightas described below. With respect to light amplitudes, the controllableoptical waveguides 11, 12, 14, 15 transmit, i.e., in their ON states orsubstantially transmitting states, maximum light amplitudes to theoptical output 28 of the output optical coupler 22 whose ratios have thevalues described above for the first exemplary embodiments. With respectto relative phases, light from the low power controllable opticalwaveguides 11, 14 interferes at the optical output 28 of the outputoptical coupler 22 with a first relative phase of about 90 degrees.Also, light from the high power controllable optical waveguides 15, 12interferes at the optical output 28 of the output optical coupler 22with a second relative phase of about 90 degrees. For example, the firstand second relative phases may be in the range of 90°±20° and preferablyare in the range of 90°±10°. Also, light from the controllable opticalwaveguides 11, 12 of a third group interferes at the optical output 28of the output optical coupler 22 with a third relative phase of about180 degrees, and light from the controllable optical waveguides 14, 15of a fourth group interferes at the optical output 28 of the outputoptical coupler 22 with a fourth relative phase of about 180 degrees.For example, the third and fourth relative phase may be in the range of180°±20° and are preferably in the range of 180°±10°.

In the second exemplary embodiments, the optical modulators 10C, 10Dproduce a signal point of a 16-QAM constellation for each state of thefour EAMs. For the optical modulator 10C, the x and y coordinates of thesignal points of the 16-QAM constellation of FIG. 2B and the states ofthe four EAMs are related as shown in Tables 3C and 3D.

TABLE 3C 16-QAM Optical modulator X = 0 x = 1 x = −2 x = −1 EAM ofwaveguide 14 OFF ON OFF ON EAM of waveguide 15 OFF OFF ON ON

TABLE 3D 16-QAM Optical modulator Y = 0 y = 1 y = −2 y = 1 EAM ofwaveguide 11 OFF ON OFF ON EAM of waveguide 12 OFF OFF ON ONFor the optical modulator 10D, the states of the EAMs produce signalpoints of a 16-QAM constellation with a different center, C. For specialconfigurations of the fixed optical waveguide 17, the center, C, of the16-QAM constellation will be at or near (0, 0). In some such specialconfigurations, the fixed optical waveguide 17 is configured to transmitto the optical output 28 of the output optical coupler 22 a lightamplitude that is about (1/2)^(1/2) of the maximum light amplitudetransmitted thereto by each lower power controllable optical waveguide11, 14, i.e., in their ON states or substantially transmitting states.For example, the fixed optical waveguide 17 may be configured totransmit to the optical output 28 of the output optical coupler 22, alight amplitude that is (1/2)^(1/2)±20% times the light amplitudetransmitted thereto by each low power controllable optical waveguide 11,14 in its ON state and preferably is (1/2)^(1/2)±10% times the lightamplitude transmitted thereto by each low power controllable opticalwaveguide 11, 14 in its ON state. In these special configurations, thefixed optical waveguide 17 outputs light that interferes, at the opticaloutput 28 of the output optical coupler 22, with a relative phases ofabout 45 degrees with light output by the controllable opticalwaveguides 11, 14 of the group. For example, the magnitude of therelative phases may be in the range of 45°±20° and are preferably in therange of 45°±10°. In these special configurations, the optical modulator10D typically transmits a lower time-averaged optical power duringoperation than the optical modulator 10C.

Also, the optical modulator 10D typically uses a lower time-averagedoptical power in the special configurations of the second exemplaryembodiments than in the special configurations of the first exemplaryembodiments.

In different embodiments, the relative lateral positions of thewaveguides 11, 12, 14, 15, 17 may be different. For example, theoutside-to-inside lateral ordering of the waveguides 11, 12, 14, 15, 17in the region between the optical couplers 20, 22 may differ indifferent embodiments.

32-QAM Optical Modulators

Referring to FIGS. 8-9, various embodiments of the optical modulators10E-10F modulate data onto an optical carrier according to 32-QAMconstellations.

A first exemplary embodiment sets internal light amplitudes and relativephases between interfered light as described below. With respect tolight amplitudes, the highest power controllable optical waveguide 16transmits, in its ON state, about twice as large a light amplitude tothe optical output 28 of the output optical coupler 22 as is transmittedthereto by each individual controllable optical waveguides 12, 15 of amid-power group transmit, in their ON states, and each individualcontrollable optical waveguide 12, 15 of the mid-power group transmits,in its ON state, to the optical output 28 of the output optical coupler22 about twice a light amplitude transmitted thereto by each individualcontrollable optical waveguide 11, 14 of a low power group, in their ONstates. With respect to relative phases, the light from the controllableoptical waveguides 14, 15, 16 of a fourth group interfere at the opticaloutput 28 of the output optical coupler 22 with the light from thecontrollable optical waveguides 11, 12 of a fifth group with a firstrelative phase of about 90 degrees. Also, light from the controllableoptical waveguides 14, 15, 16 of the fourth group interferes at theoptical output 28 of the output optical coupler 22 with a relative phaseof about 0 degrees. Finally, light from the controllable opticalwaveguides 11, 12 of the fifth group interferes at the optical output 28of the output optical coupler 22 with a relative phase of about 0degrees.

In the first exemplary embodiment, the optical modulators 10E, 10F ofFIGS. 8 and 9 produce a signal point of a 32-QAM constellation for eachstate of the five EAMs. For the optical modulator 10E, the x coordinatesand the y coordinates of the signal points of the 32-QAM constellationof FIG. 3 and the states of the EAMs are related as shown in Tables 4Aand 4B.

TABLE 4A 32-QAM modulator x = 0 x = 1 x = 2 x = 3 EAM of waveguide 11OFF ON OFF ON EAM of waveguide 12 OFF OFF ON ON

TABLE 4B 32-QAM modulator y = 0 y = 1 y = 2 y = 3 y = 4 y = 5 y = 6 y =7 EAM of OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON waveguide 14 EAM of OFF OFF ON ONOFF OFF ON ON waveguide 15 EAM of OFF OFF OFF OFF ON ON ON ON waveguide16For the optical modulator 10F, the states of the EAMs produce the signalpoints of a 32-QAM constellation with a different center, C. For specialconfigurations of the fixed optical waveguide 17, the center, C, of the32-QAM constellation will be at or near (0, 0). In some such specialconfigurations, the fixed optical waveguide 17 is configured to transmitto the optical output 28 of the output optical coupler 22 a lightamplitude that is about (29/2)^(1/2) times the light amplitudetransmitted thereto by each lower power controllable optical waveguide11, 14 in its ON state. In these special configurations, the fixedoptical waveguide 17 outputs light that interferes, at the opticaloutput 28 of the output optical coupler 22, with a relative phase ofabout arctan(7/3)+180°, i.e., about 246.8 degrees, with light output bythe controllable optical waveguides 11, 12 of the fifth group. In thespecial configurations, the optical modulator 10F typically generates alower time-averaged optical power during operation than the opticalmodulator 10E.

In different embodiments, the relative lateral positions of thewaveguides 11-12 and 14-17 may be different. For example, theoutside-to-inside ordering of the waveguides 11-12 and 14-17 in theregion between the optical couplers 20, 22 may be different.

QAM Reflective Optical Modulators

FIG. 10 illustrates alternate embodiments of QAM optical modulators I ORthat operate in manners similar to the optical modulators 10A-10F ofFIGS. 4-9. The optical modulators 10R have a single optical star coupler21 and two, three, or more controllable optical waveguides 11-16, andoptionally have a fixed optical waveguide 17 and/or optional fixed phaseshifters 18.

In the QAM optical modulator 10R, the optical star coupler 21 functionsas both the input optical coupler 20 and the output optical coupler 22of FIGS. 4-9. In particular, the optical star coupler 21 injects lightfrom an optical input 24 into the optical waveguides 11-17 and injectslight from the optical waveguides 11-17 into the optical output 28. Theoptical star coupler 21 has a single free space optical region forperforming both of these optical injection functions. Each opticalwaveguide 11-17 includes a reflector or reflective surface, RS, at itssecond end. Thus, light received from the optical star coupler 21 at oneend of one of the optical waveguides 11-17 is reflected back into to theoptical star coupler 21 via the same optical waveguide 11-17. In otherwords, some of the received light propagates in the optical waveguides11-17 in both forward and reverse directions due to intermediatereflections by the reflectors or reflective surfaces, RS. In otherembodiments, the optical star coupler 21 may be replaced by another typeof optical coupler, e.g., a multimode interference coupler.

In different embodiments, the QAM optical modulator 10R has differentnumbers of controllable optical waveguides 11-16. For embodiments of4-QAM optical modulators, the QAM optical modulator 10R has thecontrollable optical waveguides 14, 15 and optionally has the fixedoptical waveguide 17. For embodiments of 8-QAM optical modulators, theQAM optical modulator 10R has the three controllable optical waveguides11, 14, 15 and optionally has the fixed optical waveguide 17. Forembodiments of 16-QAM optical modulators, the QAM optical modulator 10Rhas the four controllable optical waveguides 11, 12, 14, 15 andoptionally has the fixed optical waveguide 17. For embodiments of 32-QAMoptical modulators, the QAM optical modulator 10R has the fivecontrollable optical waveguides 11, 12, 14, 15, 16 and optionally hasthe fixed optical waveguide 17. In each such embodiment, the presentoptical waveguides 11-17 are configured to transmit light amplitudes andrelative phases to the optical output 28 of the optical star coupler 21as described above for the same optical waveguides 11-17 in theexemplary embodiments of the optical modulators 10A-10F of FIGS. 4-9.Also, in these embodiments of the optical modulator 10R, the EAMs areoperated to be in either an ON-state, i.e., a substantially transmittingstate, or in an OFF-state, i.e., a substantially blocking state, asalready described with respect to the 4-QAM to 32-QAM optical modulatorsof FIGS. 4-9.

Operating QAM Optical Modulators

FIG. 11 illustrates a method 30 of operating an optical modulatoraccording to a 2^(M)-QAM modulation protocol where M≧2 or M≧3. Forexample, the method 30 may be performed to operate the opticalmodulators 10A-10F, 10R of FIGS. 4-10.

The method 30 includes amplitude modulating a data bit onto each lightbeam of a plurality of mutually coherent light beams via a substantiallyON-OFF keying modulation scheme, i.e., in each of a series of timeintervals (step 32). The light beams of the plurality may be produced bysplitting a coherent light beam into the mutually coherent optical beamsthat are received by the controllable optical waveguides 11-16 of FIGS.4-10, e.g., from the input optical coupler 20 or the optical coupler 21.The substantially ON-OFF keying modulation may be performed by the EAMsof FIGS. 4-10.

The method 30 includes optically interfering light of substantiallydifferent maximum amplitude from two or more of the modulated mutuallycoherent optical beams to produce an output light beam, e.g., at theoptical output 28 of the output optical coupler 22 or the opticalcoupler 21 of FIGS. 4-10 (step 34). The interfered light of the two ormore of the mutually coherent light beams may have substantiallydifferent maximum amplitudes. In particular, the interfered light fromat least two of the light beams may have maximum amplitudes that differby a factor of about two, e.g., a factor of 1.5 to 2.5 and preferably afactor of 1.8 to 2.2. The output light beam carries, two, three, or morebits of data per symbol, i.e., per modulation interval. The outputoptical beam carries a temporal sequence of data modulated thereonaccording to a QAM modulation protocol. The interfering step 34 may alsoinclude interfering the light of the modulated mutually coherent lightbeams with the light of another mutually coherent light beam that has atemporally constant amplitude, e.g., a light beam output from the fixedoptical waveguide 17 in FIGS. 5, 7, 9, and 10.

In various embodiments, the modulated light beams have preselectedrelative phases when interfered to produce the output light beam.Producing the output light beam often involves interfering two of themodulated mutually coherent light beams with a relative phase of about90 degrees, e.g., a relative phase in the range of 90±20 degrees orpreferably is in the range of 90±10 degrees. Producing the output lightbeam may also involve interfering two of the modulated mutually coherentlight beams with a relative phase difference of about 0, e.g., arelative phase in the range of 0±20 degrees and preferably is in therange of 0±10 degrees, or with a relative phase difference of about 180,e.g., a relative phase in the range of 180±20 degrees and preferably inthe range of 180±10 degrees. The production of output light beams byinterfering modulated light beams with such relative phases has beenalready described for the QAM embodiments of the optical modulators10A-10F, 10R as shown in FIGS. 4-10.

While several examples of optical modulators are described above and inFIGS. 4-10, the invention is intended to have a scope that would covermodifications of the described embodiments, e.g., wherein themodifications would be understood by a person of skill in the art inlight of the disclosure herein.

Exemplary Integrated Optical Modulators

FIG. 13 illustrates a method for fabricating an integratedoptoelectronic structure 40 as shown in FIG. 12. The integratedoptoelectronic structure 40 is an exemplary planar structure for theoptical modulators 10A-10F, 10R of FIGS. 4-10.

The optoelectronic structure 40 is based on the quantum-confined Starkeffect in some group III-V semiconductors. In particular, InP has astrong electro-absorption effect that allows the fabrication of EAMshaving substantially ON-OFF optical keying behavior over shortinteraction distances when operated by low control voltages. In thesemiconductor structure 40, the optical extinction ratio may be improvedby a stack of group III-V quantum well (QW) structures. In thesemiconductor structure 40, optical waveguide segments having a lengthof about 0.1 millimeters may provide high optical extinction ratios forlow control voltages. The smallness of such EAMs enables their operationas lumped electrical devices at high speeds and thus, can enable theiruse in compact embodiments of the optical modulators 10A-10F, 10R.

The method 60 for fabricating the integrated optoelectronic structure 40includes several steps.

First, the method 60 includes fabricating a multi-layered semiconductorstructure via conventional microelectronics processes (step 62). Themulti-layered semiconductor structure is formed on an n-type dopedindium phosphide (InP) substrate 42 made, e.g., by epitaxially growing alayer of n-type InP on an ordinary InP wafer-substrate. The layer ofn-doped InP may have a thickness of about 0.75 μm and be doped by about1×10¹⁸ silicon (Si) atoms per centimeter cubed. The multi-layeredsemiconductor structure includes a group III-V semiconductor layerseries 44 that is located on the n-type InP substrate 42, and a topmulti-layer metal electrode 46 that is on some lateral portions of thegroup III-V semiconductor layer series 44. The metal electrode 46overlies portions of group III-V semiconductor layer series 44 whereEAMs, fixed phase shifters 18, and metallic lines will be constructed.From bottom to top, the group III-V semiconductor layer series 44includes a vertical QW stack 48, a layer 50 of about 125 nm of intrinsic(i) InP, a layer 52 of about 1.3 μm p-type InP, and a top multilayer 54of about 150 nm of p++-type InGaAsP on about 150 nm of p+-type InP. Thegroup III-V semiconductor layer series 44 may be formed by performingconventional epitaxial growth processes known to persons of skill in themicroelectronics arts.

The vertical QW stack 48 includes a top confinement heterostructure, avertical sequence of about eight quantum wells and barriers, and abottom confinement heterostructure and is not intentionally doped. Thatis, the vertical QW stack 48 is constructed of intrinsic semiconductor.

In the vertical QW stack 48, each QW includes a well layer of about 8nanometers (nm) of intrinsically doped In_(1-x)Ga_(x)As_(1-z)P_(z), andbarrier layers of about 9 nm of intrinsically dopedIn_(1-x′)Ga_(x′)As_(1-z′)P_(z′), which are located on each side of thewell layer. The stack 48 has alternating barrier and well layers and hasa barrier layer at its top and bottom extremities. The well and barrierlayers have different group III-V alloy composition parameter sets [x,z] and [x′, z′]. In the well layers, the alloy compositions x and z areselected to produce a bandgap whose energy is about equal to that of aphoton with a wavelength of about 1.56 μm. In the well layers, the alloycompositions x and z are also selected to put the well layers under atensile strain of about −0.3%. In the well layers, an exemplary set ofalloy parameters is x=0.474 and z=0.09. In the barrier layers, the alloycompositions x′ and z′ are selected to produce a bandgap whose energy isabout equal to that of a photon with a wavelength of about 1.25 μm. Inthe barrier layers, the alloy compositions x′ and z′ are also selectedto put the barrier layers under a compressive strain of about +0.2%. Inthe barrier layers, an exemplary set of alloy parameters is x′=0.21 andz′=0.495.

The confinement heterostructures aid to vertically confine an opticalmode, i.e., by effectively increasing the thickness of the core of theplanar waveguide structure. The confinement heterostructures may be,e.g., layers of In_(1-x″)Ga_(x″)As_(1-z″)P_(z″) that are about 15 nmthick. The confinement heterostructures can have the same alloycompositions as the barrier layers of the QWs.

The vertical stack 48 of QWs has a band edge at about 1.56 μm, and isswitchable, i.e., via low control voltages. In particular, the verticalstack 48 can be switched between an OFF state, for which light in awavelength range of the optical telecommunications C-band issubstantially absorbed, and an ON state, for which light in the samewavelength range of the optical telecommunications C-band issubstantially transmitted.

The p-type InP layer 52 has a concentration of p-type dopant atoms thatis graded from a value near the dopant concentration in the intrinsicInP layer 50 to a value near the dopant concentration in the p+-type InPlayer of the multilayer 54. For example, the p-type InP layer 52 may bedoped by Zn atoms at a concentration that varies approximately linearlywith the layer thickness from a value of about 5×10¹⁷ Zn atoms percentimeter cubed at the bottom of the p-type InP layer 52 to a value ofabout 2×10¹⁹ Zn atoms per centimeter cubed at the top of the p-type InPlayer 52.

The top multilayer 54 is a heavily p-doped to function as an electrodefor lateral portions of the integrated optical structure 40 that will bethe EAMs and fixed optical phase shifters 18 in the optical modulators10A-10F, 10R of FIGS. 4-10. In top multilayer 54, the p++-type cap layerof InGaAs may be doped with about 2×10¹⁹ zinc (Zn) atoms per centimetercubed, and the p+-type layer of InP may be doped with about 2×10¹⁸ Znatoms per centimeter cubed.

Next, the method 60 includes performing a sequence of substeps to formthe two or more controllable optical waveguides 11-16, the optionalfixed optical waveguide 17, and the optical couplers 20, 21, 22 of theoptical modulators 10A-10F, 10R in the multi-layered semiconductorstructure formed at above step 62 (step 64). The sequence of substepsincludes removing the p+-type InGaAs/InP layer 54 over intended passivelateral portions of the layered structure, e.g., portions that arelateral to those intended for fabricating the EAMs and the fixed phaseshifters 18. Next, the sequence of substeps includes performing areactive-ion etch of the remaining multi-layer structure, wherein etchstops on the n-doped InP substrate 42 and is controlled by a silicamask. The dry etch produces the lateral boundaries of ridges 56 for theoptical waveguides 11-17, the optical couplers 20, 21, 22, and theoptical inputs and outputs 24, 28 thereof. Exemplary optical waveguides11-17 have widths of about 1.8 μm away from the optical couplers 20, 21,22. Finally, the sequence of substeps involves spinning on abenzocyclobutene (BCB) layer 58 over the etched structure and then,curing the spun on layer 58 to complete the fabrication of the lateraloptical structures of the QAM optical modulators 10A-10F, 10R.

Next, the method 60 includes performing a sequence of substeps to formthe metallization layers for the EAMs, fixed phase shifters 18 and metalcontrol lines thereof (step 66). First, a conventional etch is performedthrough the BCB over areas where metallization layers will be deposited.This etch stops on the p+-type InGaAs layer 54. Next, electrodes andmetal control lines, e.g., gold-titanium multi-layers, are formed on theexposed portions of the structure. This metallization process mayinvolve, e.g., performing a conventional deposition and lift-offprocess. Finally, the backside of the n-type InP substrate is thinnedand a back-side metallization is performed to form metallic groundplanes, e.g., conventional gold-titanium multi-layers.

The method 60 may also include producing the reflectors or reflectivesurfaces, RS, of the optical modulator 10R. The reflective surfaces areproduced by techniques known to persons of skill in the microelectronicsart, e.g., cleaving.

In the structure 40, the EAMs, fixed phased shifters 18, control linesand passive portions of optical waveguides were made with the stack ofQWs to simplify fabrication. It may however, be desirable to modify thisstructure to reduce losses by removing the stacks of QWs in passivelateral portions of the optical modulators 10A-10F, 10R of FIGS. 4-10.

Other embodiments of the structure 40 of FIG. 12 may have QWs withdifferent bandgaps. The different bandgaps would enable the otherembodiments to operate in wavelength ranges that differ from thetelecommunications C-Band.

In some embodiments, the optical modulators 10A-10F, 10R and the lasersource 26 of FIGS. 4-10 may be fabricated on the same InP substrate.

In embodiments of the optical modulators 10B, 10D, 10F, 10R that includethe fixed optical waveguide 17, the light amplitude transmitted by thefixed optical waveguide 17 to the optical coupler 21, 22 may beincreased or decreased so that a time-averaged power consumption is loweven though the EAMs of the controllable optical waveguides 11-16 havepoor extinction ratios.

The invention is intended to include other embodiments that would beobvious to one of skill in the art in light of the description, figures,and claims.

1. An optical modulator, comprising: an interferometer including an input optical coupler, an output optical coupler, and two or more controllable optical waveguides, each controllable optical waveguide connecting the input optical coupler to the output optical coupler and having an electro-absorption modulator along a segment thereof; and wherein two of the controllable optical waveguides are connected to transmit to an output of the output optical coupler substantially different maximum light amplitudes when the electro-absorption modulators of the two of the controllable optical waveguides are in ON states.
 2. The optical modulator of claim 1, wherein one of the controllable optical waveguides is connected to transmit a maximum light amplitude to the output of the output optical coupler that is between 1.5 and 2.5 times a maximum light amplitude that another of the controllable optical waveguides is connected to transmit thereto when the electro-absorption modulators of the one and the another of the controllable optical waveguides are in ON states.
 3. The optical modulator of claim 2, wherein the output optical coupler is configured to interfere at the output light from two of the controllable optical waveguides with a relative phase whose magnitude is less than 20 degrees.
 4. The optical modulator of claim 2, wherein the input and output optical couplers are optical star couplers.
 5. The optical modulator of claim 1, wherein the output optical coupler is configured to interfere at the output light from a first of the controllable optical waveguides with light from a second of the controllable optical waveguides with a relative phase of between 160 degrees and 200 degrees.
 6. The optical modulator of claim 5, wherein the first of the controllable optical waveguides is configured to transmit a maximum light amplitude to the output of the output optical coupler that is between 1.5 and 2.5 times a maximum light amplitude that the second of the optical waveguides is configured to transmit to the output of the output optical coupler when the electro-absorption modulators of the first and the second of the controllable optical waveguides are in ON states.
 7. The optical modulator of claim 5, wherein the output optical coupler is configured to interfere at the output light from a third of the controllable optical waveguides with light from a fourth of the controllable optical waveguides with a relative phase of between 160 degrees and 200 degrees.
 8. The optical modulator of claim 1, wherein one of the controllable optical waveguides is connected to transmit a maximum light amplitude to the output of the output optical coupler that is between 1.8 and 2.2 times a maximum light amplitude that another of the controllable optical waveguides is connected to transmit thereto when the electro-absorption modulators of the one and the another of the controllable optical waveguides are in ON states.
 9. The optical modulator of claim 1, further comprising: an electronic controller configured to cause each electro-absorption modulator to be in either an ON state or an OFF state, each electro-absorption modulator substantially blocking incident light in the OFF state and substantially transmitting incident light in the ON state.
 10. The optical modulator of claim 9, wherein the electronic controller is configured to operate one of the electro-absorption modulators to transmit a light intensity that is, at least, five times lower when the one of the electro-absorption modulators is in the OFF state than when the one of the electro-absorption modulators is in the ON state.
 11. An optical modulator, comprising: an interferometer including an input optical coupler, an output optical coupler, and two or more controllable optical waveguides, each controllable optical waveguide connecting the input optical coupler to the output optical coupler and having an electro-absorption modulator along a segment thereof; and wherein two of the controllable optical waveguides are connected to transmit to an output of the output optical coupler light of substantially different maximum amplitude, and wherein the interferometer includes another optical waveguide without an optical switch or controllable optical modulator there along, the another optical waveguide connecting the input optical coupler to the output optical coupler.
 12. An optical modulator, comprising: an interferometer including an optical coupler, controllable optical waveguides, and reflectors, each reflector corresponding to one of the controllable optical waveguides; and wherein each controllable optical waveguide is configured to receive light from and deliver light to the optical coupler and has an electro-absorption modulator along a segment thereof; wherein each reflector is located to reflect light back into the corresponding one of the controllable optical waveguides in response to receiving light there from; and wherein two of the controllable optical waveguides are configured to transmit to an output of the optical coupler substantially different maximum light amplitudes when the electro-absorption modulators of the two of the controllable optical waveguides are in ON states.
 13. The optical modulator of claim 12, wherein one of the controllable optical waveguides is connected to transmit a maximum light amplitude to the output of the optical coupler that is between 1.5 and 2.5 times a maximum light amplitude that another of the controllable optical waveguides is connected to transmit thereto when the electro-absorption modulators of the one and the another of the controllable optical waveguides are in ON states.
 14. The optical modulator of claim 13, wherein the optical coupler is configured to interfere at its output light from two of the controllable optical waveguides with a relative phase whose magnitude is less than 20 degrees.
 15. The optical modulator of claim 12, wherein one of the controllable optical waveguides is connected to transmit a maximum light amplitude to the output of the optical coupler that is between 1.8 and 2.2 times a maximum light amplitude that another of the controllable optical waveguides is connected to transmit thereto when the electro-absorption modulators of the one and the another of the controllable optical waveguides are in ON states.
 16. The optical modulator of claim 12, wherein the optical coupler is configured to interfere at its output light from a first of the controllable optical waveguides with light from a second of the controllable optical waveguides with a relative phase of between 160 degrees and 200 degrees.
 17. The optical modulator of claim 12, wherein the optical coupler is configured to interfere at its output light from a first of the controllable optical waveguides with light from a second of the controllable optical waveguides with a relative phase of between 170 degrees and 190 degrees; and wherein the first of the controllable optical waveguides is configured to transmit a maximum light amplitude to the output of the optical coupler that is between 1.5 and 2.5 times a maximum light amplitude that the second of the controllable optical waveguides is configured to transmit thereto when the electro-absorption modulators of the first and second of the controllable optical waveguides are in ON states.
 18. The optical modulator of claim 12, further comprising: an electronic controller configured to cause each electro-absorption modulator to be in either an ON state or an OFF state, each electro-absorption modulator substantially blocking incident light in the OFF state and substantially transmitting incident light in the ON state. 